above the line - The part of a film's budget that covers the costs associated with major creative talent: the stars, the director, the producer(s) and the writer(s); films with expensive special effects have more 'above the line' budget costs for technical aspects
aerial shot - Shot from in the sky and establishes a large expanse of scenery; aka helicopter shot.
ambient lighting - Light already on location; be aware when shooting for long periods as light will change.
ambient sound - Sound that is natural to the setting. It can be added during editing.
animation - Each frame of a film is individually produced by photographing artwork, models, etc. When the frames are run together, it creates the illusion of continuous motion.
arc shot - Camera moves around the subject, following a rough semi-circle.
backlighting - Placed higher than actor/object; hits them from behind; helps frame feel 3-dimensional.
below the line - Production expenses that are not above the line, such as costs of material, music rights, publicity, the trailer…
bird's-eye angle - An extreme high angle shot where the camera looks straight down to create a sense of scale and movement (aka top shot or overhead shot).
bounce lighting - Uses white/silver boards to softly bounce light from any source; subtly highlights subject.
breaking the fourth wall - Where a character in the film directly addresses the audience or hams to the camera therefore breaking the illusion that the film is ‘real’.
bridge - Sound that carries on from one scene to the next; sound is heard then we cut to source.
claymation - A technique where clay/plasticine figures are filmed using stop-motion photography.
close-up - Tightly frames an entire face/object; can reveal emotions/reactions.
composition - The complete arrangement of a scene by the director. The process includes camera angles, mise-en-scène, the movement of the actors…
continuity - Making sure all details on screen are consistent from shot-to-shot to maintain realism. Errors could be a prop being held at waist-level in one shot then at chest-level in the next.
continuity editing - Seamlessly cutting from shot to shot without calling attention to the editing. Creates the sense of an unbroken period of space/time, and a believable, consistent world.
continuity error - When the action or elements of a scene don’t match across shots (for example, when a character breaks a glass window but in a later shot the window is shown undamaged).
crab shot - Allows the following of a subject sideways.
crane shot - The camera is mounted on a crane, to achieve striking height or aerial movement.
cross-cutting - Alternating between two or more different scenes which are (usually) happening simultaneously; aka parallel editing.
crossing the line - Failure to follow the 180 degree rule by crossing the line of action.
cut - A clean break between consecutive shots or sequences that marks a quick transition between one time/space and another. Each kind of cut will create a different meaning.
cut-out animation - A 2D animation technique that uses flat characters/props/backgrounds cut from materials (card, fabric or photos). Cut-out shapes are moved slightly and photographed.
cutaway - A sudden shift to another scene of action or different viewing angle; or a shot inserted between scenes to effect a transition (as a bridging shot).
camera angle - The viewpoint chosen to film a subject.
camera framing - Deliberate use of camera; refers to the size of an image within the frame, how subjects are placed in frame, and how our point of attention is focused.
camera movement - The deliberate movement of a camera within a shot, incorporating position and speed.
documentary - Screen texts seeking to represent versions of reality/fact. Forms evolved from early records of events to contemporary docu-soaps. Different types use different techniques.
dolly - A platform on wheels, capable-of movement in any direction, or other moving vehicle.
dolly shot - Camera is set on a dolly which allows smooth movement when following the subject.
dolly zoom shot - Camera dollies in/out while zooming in/out at the same time; creates a warping or disorienting feel.
dubbing - The elements of the soundtrack mixed together during post-production.
Dutch angle - A disorienting shot where the camera is tipped onto its side so the ‘world’ of the film seems crooked (aka canted angle).
deep focus - Keeps all details in the frame in focus in case background is important.
depth of field - Distance between objects nearest/furthest from camera in acceptably sharp focus.
dialogue - The words spoken between the characters.
diegetic - Sound that can be heard by the characters.
digital technologies - Refers to any system for recording and reading information – images, sounds – in computer-based numerical codes rather than in the older ‘analogue’ systems where information is directly stored on film or tape. Digital versions are easier to access, manipulate and store than analogue copies. Unlike analogue recordings, the audio or visual quality of digital versions does not degrade over time.
dissolve - When two shots are on screen at the same time, visible through each other. The first shot is faded out while the second is faded in (aka mix).
docu-soap - AKA reality television/drama-mentaries. TV in the style a documentary where a “plot” is constructed by intention/ editing so shows resemble soap operas. Often not seen as “real” documentaries due to misrepresentation/fabrication.
editing - The process of putting shots together into sequences/scenes. Described according to rhythm/pace (i.e. varying lengths of the shots in the sequence) and type of transition.
end credits - A list of everyone involved in the film’s production, shown at the end of the film.
establishing shot - Shows a (often exterior) setting; placed at the head of a scene to establish location.
expository documentary - Set up a specific point-of-view/argument about a subject; often feature “voice of God” style voice-over. Cinematographer will collect footage that supports/strengthens the spoken argument of the film (stock/archival footage, b-roll, re-enactments of historical events).
extreme close-up - Shows a specific detail of a subject, filling the frame, to draw attention to it.
extreme long shot - Takes in a large expanse of the setting to emphasise location or isolation.
eye-level shot - Camera is set at eye level so mimics how we see people in real life.
eye-line match - Shows viewers what characters are seeing (e.g. if a character is looking at an off-screen object, the next shot will be of that object).
frame - Individual still image; the rectangle within which the image is composed or captured.
frames per second - The number of still images that pass through the camera/projector per second. Film usually runs at 24 fps, video at 25 fps.
full shot - Shows character from head to toe; highlights costume or shows multiple characters.
fade in/out - Gradual increase/decrease of sound level (often from/to silence).
fade to black - Gradual disappearance of image into black screen.
fill lighting - Standard lighting: places a less powerful light opposite the key light to remove shadows.
focal length - The distance between the optical centre of the lens and the image sensor. The longer the focal length, the greater the magnification involved; the shorter the focal length, the wider the angle of view.
focus pull - Shifts focus from one subject to another (AKA rack focus).
foley track - Sound effects created using sources other than those shown on screen.
genre - Groups of different types of films, defined by conventions which often appear in examples of a genre (e.g. narratives, symbols/icons, themes, settings, characters…)
group shot - Allows the camera to efficiently follow several characters; can create a bond.
hand-held - Camera is held manually to produce irregular movement (can signify point of view).
hard lighting - Uses a direct beam of light and less fill light to create dramatic shadows/harsh lines.
high angle shot - A shot looking down on the action.
high definition/HD/Hi-Def - HD/Hi-Def refers to the quality of the visual recording. There are many more pixels used in a high definition image, which means that you can see more clear, crisp pictures, vivid colours, and up to five times more detail than standard definition.
high key lighting - Heightens the key light and uses fill light to brighten a scene; creates an optimistic tone.
icons/iconography - A whole series of visual elements and symbols with the same range of reference.
incidental music - Background music that adds atmosphere to the action.
jump cut - A cut between two shots of the same object, character or scene where the angle of the camera is less than 45 degrees.
key lighting - Main light source in 3-point lighting setup: illuminates the form of the subject or actor.
low key lighting - Uses fewer light sources to gain shadows, contrast and blackness for an ominous tone.
lighting - A filmmaker must light a scene in order to be able to see it on camera, but lighting is more than that. Atmospheric lighting is when light is used to create mood.
line of action - An imaginary line used to help stage camera positions for shooting action. Typically ‘drawn’ along the line of sight between two characters in a scene, or following the movement of characters, cars, etc. In the continuity system all shots will be taken from one side only of the line to maintain consistency (the 180 degree rule).
lip sync - Synchronising mouth and lip movements in the image with speech on the soundtrack.
long shot - Takes in much or all of the action while keeping the subject in sight (AKA wide shot).
long take - A shot that is allowed to continue for longer than usual without editing.
low angle shot - A shot looking up on the action.
master shot - Establishes spatial relationships/setting; returned to when these need re-established.
match cut/match on action - Joining two shots with matching elements (an image, a line of dialogue, an action) for a stronger sense of continuity. These form the basis for continuity editing.
medium close-up - Middle ground between master shot and close-up; maintains eerie distance during conversations.
medium long shot - Shows characters from the knees up; useful when movement must be shown.
medium shot - Shows characters from the waist up; good for dialogue scenes.
mise-en-scène - French term: “put in the scene”. Refers to all the elements of a shot – set, props, costumes, lighting, colour, actor position – and the composition/choreography of these.
mix - See dissolve.
mixed media/multi-media - When various types of animation and/or live action film are combined.
montage - Sequence of shots assembled for emotional impact, condensing story, conveying an idea
motion-capture (mo-cap) - Recording the movement of objects/people to animate digital models in 2D or 3D computer animation. Capturing face/fingers/subtle expressions is known as performance capture.
motivated lighting - Imitates natural light sources; a stand-in for sun/moonlight, street lights, car headlights...
natural lighting - Uses light already at location, with bounce cards to reflect or block it to mimic reality.
non-diegetic - Sound that does not exist in the “real world” of the film - the characters cannot hear it.
observational documentary - Attempt to discover the ultimate truth of their subject by acting as a fly-on-the-wall - in other words, observing the subject’s real life without interrupting. Cinematographers aim to be as unobtrusive as possible in order to capture their subjects in a raw, unguarded state.
off-camera/off-screen - Action belonging to the story world which takes place outside the frame.
opening titles - Credits shown on screen at the film’s start; includes the title, producers, director, writer and main actors. Used much less in recent years.
over-the-hip shot - Same as OTS but from a lower angle so can create a power imbalance.
over-the-shoulder shot - Camera sits over the shoulder of a character, looking at the same thing as them.
pan shot - When a static camera pivots horizontally.
parallel action - When two story elements, happening simultaneously, are edited so that action switches between the scenes (often leading up to a point when the two meet).
parallel editing - See cross-cutting.
participatory documentary - Attempt to discover the ultimate truth of their subject by acting as a fly-on-the-wall - in other words, observing the subject’s real life without interrupting. Cinematographers aim to be as unobtrusive as possible in order to capture their subjects in a raw, unguarded state.
performative documentary - Focus on filmmaker’s involvement with subject, using personal experience/relationship with subject as a springboard for exploring larger, subjective truths. Cinematographer captures production process and intimate footage showing this direct/personal relationship.
persistence of vision - Trick of the eyes: when still images are projected above a certain speed, we see fluid movement. (Old films were projected below this speed so images flickered: “the flicks”.)
poetic documentary - No linear continuity; focus on mood, tone, imagery. Often have little/no narrative content; cinematographer asked to capture highly composed, visually striking images that tell a story without verbal context.
point-of-view shot - Audience is positioned as if they were the character; we see what they see.
practical lighting - Uses props (lamps, candles, TV set…) to light corners/faces; helps ambiance of a scene.
rack focus - Shifts focus from one subject to another (AKA focus pull).
reaction shot - A shot in which we see the character’s reaction (sometimes after a point-of-view shot).
reflexive documentary - Focus on the relationship between filmmaker and audience. Subject is often the process of documentary filmmaking itself, so cinematographer will shoot behind-the-scenes style footage of the production process, including editing, interviewing, and post-production.
reframe - Adjustment of framing to compensate for movement within the frame.
silhouette animation - Characters are only visible as black silhouettes, usually because they are backlit. It uses jointed, flat marionettes whose poses are minutely readjusted for each frame.
symbols/symbolism - A visual element representing something more abstract (e.g. water symbolises purity).
storyboard - Typically a series of drawings which approximate to a sequence of moving images within each scene.
stop-motion photography - When objects (e.g. puppets, models) are moved a tiny bit between each photographed frame to create the illusion of movement, such as in claymation.
stereotypes - Often used as a derogatory term for a quickly drawn or ‘stock’ character; criticised as lazy/deliberate misrepresentations of people/groups but can have its uses.
Steadicam - Trade name for a camera mount which, whether handheld or strapped to the operator, lessens movement, so making movement smoother and more fluid.
static (fixed) shot - Camera is unmoving; good for comedy/dance as it emphasises performer’s movement.
soundtrack - The audio components of a film – dialogue, sound effects, the music track.
sound perspective - Use of sound to create a sense of physical space (sounds in the distance seem far away).
sound effects - Sounds added in post-production to build mood or reinforce action.
soft lighting - Uses large light sources/diffusion for subtle shades of light. Good for romantic scenes.
single shot - One character is alone in the frame to give them importance or create isolation.
side lighting - Enters the frame from the side to highlight a person/object; provides drama and mood.
shoulder-level shot - Camera is set at shoulder level; the most standard shot.
shot/reverse shot - Alternating shots, typically of two characters in a dialogue sequence.
shot size - The size of the subject in the frame – close-up, long shot, full shot, etc.
scene - The basic dramatic unit, usually continuous in time and setting.
shot - The moment that the camera starts rolling until the moment it stops; the continuous footage or sequence between two cuts. (The term "shot" is from the early days of film when cameras were hand-cranked, similar to hand-cranked machine guns of the time.)
shooting script - In a screenplay scenes are assigned numbers tying in to a list of resources needed to shoot that scene (dates, times, actors, costumes, props, equipment…)
shallow focus - Background is blurry while focus remains on subject.
sequence - A group of shots showing a single piece of action, e.g. a chase sequence; aka scene.
script/screenplay - The text version of a film; includes the dialogue spoken by characters, details all the action depicted on screen and indicates the intended atmosphere.
score - The incidental music composed specifically for a film.
transition - The movement of one shot to another; can be achieved by a cut, a dissolve, a wipe, etc.
two shot - Shows two characters in a frame to create a relationship between them.
tilt - When a static camera pivots vertically.
tilt-shift - Allows certain elements to be in greater focus; is quite dreamlike.
time code - Numeric reference (hours/minutes/seconds/frames) for each frame of the film.
tracking - Allows the camera to follow (track) the subject from behind/beside; can reveal a scene.
voiceover - When an unseen person speaks on the soundtrack as a narrative aid.
whip pan shot - A panning shot which moves quickly, as if the camera has suddenly ‘noticed’ something.
whip tilt shot - A tilting shot which moves quickly and creates motion blur, as with a whip pan shot.
wide angle lens - A lens with a short focal length, a wide angle of view, and less magnification than a telephoto lens.
worm's-eye shot - An extreme low angle shot where the camera is placed at ground level (aka ground-level shot).
zoom (lens) shot - Image size changes as the focal length of the zoom lens is altered; can show shock/ surprise.
180 degree rule -
The line of action should not be crossed to maintain continuity - there should never be a difference greater than 180 degrees between camera angles in consecutive shots (e.g. two characters/elements in the same scene should always have the same left/right relationship to each other). Breaking this rule disrupts the scene/disorients the audience.
2D animation - The creation of moving pictures in a flat, two-dimensional environment, through ‘cel’ (hand-drawn) animation or creating images in computerised animation software.
3-point lighting - Standard lighting setup - key light, fill light, backlight; filmmaker controls illumination.
30 degree rule - Camera angles between consecutive shots should never be less than 30 degrees.
3D animation - Creating moving pictures in a three-dimensional environment with depth perception.
